Aelian, Characteristics of Animals

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§ 6.20 The male Scorpion is exceedingly ferocious, but the female seems to be of a milder temper. And I have heard that there are eleven kinds: one is white, while another is red, another smoke-colour, there is also a black kind; I have learnt also that there is one kind that is green, another pot-bellied, and another that resembles a crab. But it is commonly said that the fiercest is the fiery-coloured one. I have also learned by report that there are Scorpions with wings and others with a double sting, and somewhere one has been seen with seven vertebrae. The Scorpion is not oviparous but viviparous. And it should be known that some say that the offspring of these creatures are not produced by mating but... heat causes Scorpions to be exceedingly prolific. And how they all inflict their sting, and the effect this produces, and how they kill, you will learn from another source.
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§ 6.21 In India, I am told, the Elephant and the Python (?) are the bitterest enemies. Now Elephants draw down the branches of trees and feed upon them. And the Pythons, knowing this, crawl up the trees and envelop the lower half of their bodies in the foliage, but the upper portion extending to the head they allow to hang loose like a rope. And the Elephant approaches to pluck the twigs, whereat the Python springs at its eyes and gouges them out. Next the snake winds round the Elephant's neck, and [as it clings to the tree?] with the lower part of its body, it tightens its hold with the upper part and strangles the Elephant with an unusual and singular noose.
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§ 6.22 To the lion fire and a cock are utterly hateful; to the leopard a hyena, to the scorpion a gecko. Thus, if the aforesaid creature is brought near to a scorpion, the latter is seized with numbness. And the elephant shrinks from the python; and every beast of burden dreads the shrew- mouse; the lobster, the octopus. Furthermore if you were to try to push dogs off the roof, you would not succeed in throwing them down: they are afraid of the great danger involved.
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§ 6.23 What ingenuity, peculiar to their kind, Nature seems to have imparted to Scorpions! The people of Libya dreading their numbers and their machinations, devise endless schemes to counter them: they wear high boots; they sleep in beds raised high above the ground, setting their bed-cords away from the walls; they place the feet of their beds in vessels full of water, and imagine that they wil thereafter sleep without fear and in peace. But what tricks do the Scorpions devise! If a Scorpion can find some spot in the roof to which he can hang, he clings to it firmly with his claws and lets down his sting. Then a second descends from the roof, crawls down over the first, and with his claws holds fast to his sting and lets his own dangle in the air. Then a third holds on to that, and a fourth on to the third, and a fifth in a line, while those that follow crawl down over the preceding ones. Then the last Scorpion strikes the sleeper; crawls up again over the one above; after him the next; then the third from the bottom; then the rest, until the entire lot are disconnected, just as if they had undone a chain.
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§ 6.24 The Fox is a crafty creature. For instance, it plots against Hedgehogs in the following way. It cannot overcome them by a direct attack, the reason being that their prickles prevent it; and so, gingerly and taking great care of its mouth, it turns them over and lays them on their back and after ripping them open, easily devours those whom till then it dreaded. And this is the way that Foxes hunt Bustards in Pontus. They reverse themselves and put their head down upon the ground and stick their tail up, like a bird's neck. And the bustards are taken in and approach, supposing it to be some bird of their own kind; then when they come close up, they are easily caught by the Fox, which turns upon them and attacks them violently. Their manner of catching very small fishes is and extremely dexterous. They move along the bank of a stream and trail their tails in the water. And the fish swim up and are enmeshed and entangled in the thick hairs. When the Foxes notice this, they withdraw from the water and go to dry ground where they shake their tails thoroughly: the little fishes tumble out, and the Foxes make a delicious meal. The people of Thrace use this animal as an indicator of whether a frozen river is safe to cross. And if the Fox runs across without the ice bending or giving way beneath its tread, they make bold to follow. The Fox tests the safety of the transit in the following manner: it puts its ear down to the ice, and if it hears no sound of the flow beneath and no murmur in the depths, it has no fear, the ice being solid, and it races over without hesitation. Otherwise it would not set foot upon it.
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§ 6.25 Poets pay homage to the daughter of Iphis, and the theatres are packed when they celebrate this famous heroine, since she excelled all other women in her chaste resolve, reckoning her husband more precious than her own life. But animals have not been wanting in inordinate affection. For instance, the hound of Erigone died upon the body of its mistress: also the hound of Silanio upon the body of its master, and neither force nor blandishment could move it from the grave. And when Darius, the last King of Persia was struck by Bessus in the battle against Alexander and lay dead, all forsook the corpse, only the dog which had been reared under his care remained faithfully at his side, unwilling to abandon, as though he was still alive, the man who could no longer tend him. Xenophon the son of Gryllus is clearly using the high-flown language of youth when he relates a similar tale of the friends of Cyrus the Younger, how his table-companions alone stood fast at his side and were slain along with him, while the eunuch who held the office of sceptre-bearer and was called Artapates, slew himself upon the corpse, not caring to live henceforward without Cyrus. And the hound of King Lysimachus of its own free will shared his death although its life might have been saved.
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§ 6.26 The Monkey- spider has by some been called'the mountain-ranger,' but by others (I am told)'the wood-runner.' It is born on trees and is hairy. It has also by some been called'the flea.' Its belly has a slight incision, so that one might say it had been cut in two by a thread. It inflicts the most dangerous bites, and they are attended by a trembling on the part of the victim; there ensues a sharp pain in the region of the heart; the urine is stopped; and the other passage also becomes blocked. It seems that the remedy for these afflictions is to eat a river-crab.
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§ 6.27 The Tom- cat is extremely lustful, but the Female cat is devoted to her kittens and tries to avoid sexual intercourse with the male, because the semen which he ejaculates is exceedingly hot and like fire, and burns the female organ. Now the tomcat knowing this, makes away with their kittens, and the Female in her yearning for other offspring yields to his lust. They say that Cats hate and abhor all foulsmelling objects, and that is why they dig a hole before they discharge their excrement, so that they may get it out of sight by throwing earth upon it.
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§ 6.28 They say that the Octopus is the most incontinent of fish and copulates until all the strength of its body is drained away, leaving it weak, incapable of swimming, and unable to seek for food; in consequence of which it provides food for others, thus: small fishes, and what are known as'hermit-crabs,' and crabs come about it and devour it. And they say that this is the reason why the Octopus cannot live for more than a year. And as to the female, it is soon exhausted by giving birth so frequently.
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§ 6.29 Phylarchus records how a youth who was deeply devoted to birds was presented with an eaglet, and how he fed it on a variety of foods and tended it with all possible care. He reared the bird not as a plaything to sport with, but as a favourite or as a younger brother, so full of thought was the youth for the Eagle. As time passed it lit the flame of a strong mutual friendship. It happened that the youth fell sick, and the Eagle stayed at his side and nursed its keeper: while he slept, the bird remained quiet; when he woke, it was there; if he took no food, it refused to eat. And when the youth at last died, the Eagle also followed him to the tomb, and as the body burned it threw itself on to the pyre.
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§ 6.30 The Hake though not differing widely from other fish in its inward parts, is nevertheless solitary in its habits and cannot endure to live with other fish. It is the only fish that has its heart in its belly and stones in its brain resembling millstones. At the rising of the Dog-star it alone lurks in its den, while other fish are in the habit of doing so in the very frostiest seasons.
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§ 6.31 Those who hunt Crabs have hit upon the device of luring them with music. At any rate they catch them by means of a flageolet (this is the name of an instrument). Now the Crabs have gone down into their hiding-places, and the men begin to play. And at the sound, as though by a spell, the Crabs are induced to quit their den, and then captivated with delight even emerge from the sea. But the flute-players withdraw backwards and the Crabs follow and when on the dry land are caught.
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§ 6.32 Those who live by the lake of Marea catch the Sprats there by singing with the utmost shrillness, accompanying their song with the clash of castanets. And the fishes, like women dancing, leap to the tune and fall into the nets spread for their capture. And through their dancing and frolics the Egyptians obtain an abundant catch.
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§ 6.33 I am informed that the Egyptians bring birds down from the sky by some magic peculiar to them. And they have certain spells to bewitch snakes and draw them without any difficulty from their lurking-places.
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§ 6.34 The Beaver is an amphibious creature: by day it lives hidden in rivers, but at night it roams the land, feeding itself with anything that it can find. Now it understands the reason why hunters come after it with such eagerness and impetuosity, and it puts down its head and with its teeth cuts off its testicles and throws them in their path, as a prudent man who, falling into the hands of robbers, sacrifices all that he is carrying, to save his life, and forfeits his possessions by way of ransom. If however it has already saved its life by self-castration and is again pursued, then it stands up and reveals that it offers no ground for their eager pursuit, and releases the hunters from all further exertions, for they esteem its flesh less. Often however Beavers with testicles intact, after escaping as far away as possible, have drawn in the coveted part, and with great skill and ingenuity tricked their pursuers, pretending that they no longer possessed what they were keeping in concealment.
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§ 6.35 The Buprestis ( cow -inflater) is a creature which, if swallowed by a cow, causes it to swell and presently to burst and die.
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§ 6.36 Caterpillars feed upon vegetables and in a short while destroy them. But they in turn are destroyed if a woman with her monthly courses upon her walks through the vegetables.
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§ 6.37 The worst enemies of cattle are the Gadfly and the Horsefly. The Gadfly is the size of the very largest flies, and its sting is powerful and long, and it makes a harsh buzzing sound. But the Horsefly is like the dogfly: its buzz is louder than the Gadfly, but its sting is smaller.
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§ 6.38 Among all those who have been bitten by an Asp there is no record of a single man having escaped disaster. That is why (I am told) the Kings of Egypt wear asps embroidered upon their crowns, hinting through the figure of the aforesaid creature at the invincibility of their rule. There are Asps its as much as five cubits long; the majority are black or of an ashy hue; and one may even see a red one. Those who have been bitten by an Asp do not live for more than four hours and are assailed by choking and convulsions and retching, so they say. But I am told that the Ichneumon destroys the eggs of the Asp with intent to do away with the future enemies of its own young. And there is a story that the Libyan Asp even blinds men with its breath.
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§ 6.39 Now does not Nature claim our admiration for this reason especially, besides others? Of the males the sires destroy most of the male fawns to prevent their multiplying and then mounting their dams. Even among brute beasts, I fancy, such an act is regarded as bringing defilement and a curse. But Cyrus and Parysatis, you men of Persia, thought it a fine and legitimate action. And Cyrus conceived a vile passion for his mother, a passion which his mother reciprocated. (While animals are moderate in their desires?) men desire everything and stop at nothing.
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§ 6.40 There is an island in the Black Sea named after Heracles which has been highly honoured. Now all the Mice there pay reverence to the god, and every offering that is made to him they believe to have been made to gratify him and would not touch it. And so the vine grows luxuriantly in his honour and is reverenced as an offering to him alone, while the ministers of the god preserve the clusters for their sacrifices. Accordingly when the grapes reach maturity the Mice quit the island so that they may not, by remaining, even involuntarily touch what is better not touched. Later when the season has run its course they return to their own haunts. This is a merit in the Pontic Mice. But Hippon, Diagoras, and Herostratus, and all the rest in the tale of heaven's enemies, how would they have kept their hands off the grapes or other offerings — men who preferred by one means or another to rob the gods of their names and functions.
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§ 6.41 This is what commonly happens in Egypt. The When it rains in Egypt (the raindrops are minute) Mice are produced forthwith. Now they roam the ploughlands and damage the standing crops by cutting away and nibbling the ears of corn from below, and actually ravage the stacked sheaves and cause the Egyptians much trouble. On that account the people try to trap them, to exclude them by building walls, to keep them off by digging trenches in which they light fires. Now the Mice go nowhere near the traps but allow them to remain useless. And although the walls have been rendered smooth with a wash of mortar, they climb up them and then, being exceedingly nimble, jump over the trenches. And so the Egyptians abandon their traps and schemes as ineffectual and turn from them to prayers and supplications to the gods. Whereupon the Mice, I fancy, are in dread of the wrath of heaven and retreat in the formation of a hollow square to some mountain. Now the youngest go in front and the oldest bring up the rear, and if any are left behind, the latter turn and force them to follow. If however the youngest ones halt from exhaustion, the entire lot behind them halt also, as is customary for an armed force. And when the front rank begins to move, then the remainder follow. And the inhabitants of Pontus say that the Mice there do the same. And it is believed that whenever a house is threatening to fall, all the Mice will change house as fast as their legs can carry them. Now here is another peculiar trait of Mice: whenever they hear the squeak of a marten or the hiss of a viper they transfer their young from one hole to a number of different holes.
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§ 6.42 An Italian story, which records an event that occurred when affairs were at their prime in the city of Sybaris, has reached me and is worth relating. A mere boy, a goatherd by occupation, whose name was Crathis, under an erotic impulse lay with the prettiest of his goats, and took pleasure in the union, and whenever he wanted sexual pleasure he would go to her; and he kept her as his darling. Moreover the amorous goatherd would bring to his loved one aforesaid such gifts as he could procure, offering her sometimes the loveliest twigs of tree-medick, and often bindweed and mastic to eat, so making her mouth fragrant for him if he should want to kiss her. And he even prepared for her, as for a bride, a leafy bed ever so luxurious and soft to sleep in. But the he- goat, the leader of the flock, did not observe these proceedings with indifference, but was filled with jealousy. For a time however he dissembled his anger and watched for the boy to be seated and asleep; and there he was, his face dropped forward on his chest. So with all the force at his command the he- goat dashed his head against him and smashed the fore-part of his skull. The event reached the ears of the inhabitants, and it was no mean tomb that they erected for the boy; and they called their river'the Crathis' after him. From his union with the she- goat a baby was born with the legs of a goat and the face of a man. The story goes that he was deified and was worshipped as a god of the woods and vales. From the goat we learn that animals have indeed their share of jealousy.
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§ 6.43 Historians celebrate the Syringes of the Egyptians; they also with the company of poets celebrate certain labyrinths in Crete. They have yet to learn of the elaborate tracks with their mazy windings dug by Ants in the earth. Now in their wisdom these make their underground dwelling so very tortuous as to render access difficult or totally impossible for such creatures as have designs upon them. And the soil which they excavate they put around the mouth, forming as it were walls a,nd barriers, so that the rain which descends from the sky may not easily flood them and destroy all or at any rate most of them. And with consummate skill they build partitioning walls, as you might say, to separate their cells from one another, and, as in some fine house, there will be three divisions: the first they design for the'men's quarters,' in which the males live and any females that are with them; the second, in which the pregnant ants bring forth their young — the'women's quarters,' as it might be; and the third they set apart as a treasury and a pit for the seeds they have collected. And no Ischomachus, no Socrates, with their interest in the management of a household on admirable lines, is there to teach them these things. When Ants go abroad to collect food, they follow the biggest ones, and these lead the way, like generals. And as soon as they reach the crops the young ones stand at the foot of the stalks while the leaders crawl up and having eaten through what are called the'rhacillae' of the fruitful ears, throw the ears down to the crowd below. And these go about and cut off the chaff and peel off the capsules that protect and envelop the wheat. They need no threshing, no men who can winnow, nor even'rushing winds' to separate and sunder the chaff and the grain, yet the Ants possess the food of men who plough and sow. I have also heard the following example of their cleverness: their relations bury dead ants in the capsules of wheat, just as men bury their parents or all whom they love in coffins.
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§ 6.44 If a Horse receives careful attention, he repays his benefactor by being good-natured and friendly. How Bucephalus bore himself to Alexander is a story that is current everywhere and would give me no pleasure to repeat. I shall also pass over the horse of Antiochus which avenged his master by killing the Gaul (his name was Centoarates) who slew Antiochus on the battlefield. Socles then, about whom not many seem to know, was an Athenian who was esteemed, and indeed was, a comely boy. Now he bought a horse, handsome too like its master but of a violently amorous disposition and with a far sharper eye than other horses. Hence it conceived a passionate love for its master, and when he approached, it would snort; and if he patted it, it would neigh; when he mounted, it would be docile; when he stood before it, it would cast languishing glances at him. These actions already savoured of love, but were thought pleasing. When however the horse, becoming too reckless, seemed to be meditating an assault upon the boy, and tales about the pair of a too monstrous nature began to circulate, Socles would not tolerate the slander, and in his detestation of a licentious lover sold the horse. But the animal could not bear to be separated from the beautiful boy and ended its days by a rigorous starvation.
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§ 6.45 The Francolin entertains the bitterest hatred for the Cock, and the Cock on its side for the Francolin; likewise the Falcon for the Crow, and vice versa; and the Raven for the Sea-hawk, and the Sea-hawk for it; the Raven and the Falcon for the Turtle-dove, and the Turtle-dove for both. I have learnt also that the Stork abhors the Bat, and the Bat in return abhors it as an enemy; and the Pelican, I am told, is not friendly disposed to the Quail, and their hatred is mutual.
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§ 6.46 To the Eagle the herb called comfrey is fatal; to the Ibis the gall of the Hyena; to the Starling the seed of garlic; to the Stone-curlew bitumen; to the Kite pondweed, as it is called. And the Kite cannot endure the gall of the Shearwater. If a Falcon, or a Sea-mew, or a Turtle-dove, or a Blackbird, or the whole Vulture tribe eat a sliced pomegranate, they die. The leaves of the cedar are fatal to the Reed-warbler (?); the flower of the agnus-castus to the Marsh-tit; to the Raven the seed of the rocket. The Beetle is killed by perfume, and the Hoopoe by the fat of a gazelle. If a Crow comes upon the remains of flesh which a wolf has eaten, it is killed. A Lark is destroyed by mustard-seed, and a Crane if it drinks the gum from a vine.
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§ 6.47 It occurs to me at this point to speak of the Hare as follows. The Hare does not repair to its accustomed form until it has confused its tracks, here in entering, and there in leaving, in order to defeat the designs of huntsmen. It is by some kind of natural sagacity that it tricks men so very craftily.
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§ 6.48 It seems that the Mare is in fact a good mother and cherishes the memory of her foal. The younger Darius had noted this; hence he would take into battle some mares that had lately foaled and had left their young at home. Foals that lose their dams are reared on the milk of a stranger, just as human beings are. Now when the changing fortune of the battle of Issus began to press the Persians, and Darius was being defeated, he mounted a Mare, being anxious to escape and to save himself with all possible speed. And the Mare, remembering the foal she had left behind, is celebrated for having with the uttermost eagerness and at full speed snatched her master away from the critical moment of urgent danger.
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§ 6.49 At Athens an aged Mule was released from work by its master, so Aristotle tells us, but declined to abandon its love of labour and its willingness to work on the score of age. Thus, at the time when the Athenians were erecting the Parthenon, though it neither drew nor carried burdens, yet it would unbidden and of its own free will walk by the young mules as they went back and forth, like a horse harnessed alongside a pair, acting as guard, so to speak; and by treading a common path it encouraged their work, like some old craftsman whom age has released from labour with his hands but whose experience and knowledge are a stimulus and incitement to the young. Now when the people got to hear of this they directed the herald to proclaim that if it came in quest of barleymeal or approached to get corn, it was not to be prevented but was to be allowed to eat its fill, and that the populace would defray the cost, as in the case of an athlete who in his old age was given his meals in the Prytaneum.
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§ 6.50 The following story, they say, shows how Cleanthes of Assos was forced against his will and in spite of his vehement arguments to the contrary, to make a concession to animals and to allow that they too are not destitute of reasoning power. Cleanthes happened to be seated and moreover was resting quietly for some time. Now there were Ants about his feet in great numbers. So he observed how some were conveying a dead ant out of one track to a nest belonging to other ants not of their own kin. And they paused on the edge of the nest with the corpse while others came up from below and met the strangers seemingly with a view to some consultation; the same Ants then went down into the nest. And this happened several times until finally they brought up a worm, as it were a ransom. And the other party accepted it and surrendered the dead body which they had brought. And the Ants in the nest were glad to receive it, as though they were recovering a son or brother. Now what answer can Hesiod make to this when he says that Zeus has made a distinction between various natures and has granted'to fish on the one hand and to beasts and to winged fowl that they should devour one another, for among them there is no justice, but to mankind has he granted justice'? But Priam will not admit this, since it was at the cost of many marvellous treasures that even he, a man and moreover a descendant of Zeus, redeemed Hector from the man who was also a hero and a descendant of Zeus.
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§ 6.51 The name of the Dipsas (thirst-provoker) declares to us what it does. It is smaller than the viper, but kills more swiftly, for persons who chance to be bitten burn with thirst and are on fire to drink and imbibe without stopping and in a little while burst. Sostratus declares that the Dipsas is white, though it has two black stripes on its tail. And I have heard that some people call these snakes presteres (inflaters); others, kausones (burners). In fact they deluge this creature with a host of names. It has also been called melanurus (black-tail), so they say, and by others ammobates (sand-crawler); and should you also hear it also called kentris (stinger), you may take it from me that the same snake is meant. And it behoves me to repeat a story (which I know from having heard it) regarding this creature, so that I may not appear to be ignorant of it. It is said that Prometheus stole fire, and the story goes that Zeus was angered and bestowed upon those who laid information of the theft a drug to ward off old age. So they took it, as I am informed, and placed it upon an ass. The ass proceeded with the load on its back; and it was summer time, and the ass came thirsting to a spring in its need for a drink. Now the snake which was guarding the spring tried to prevent it and force it back, and the ass in torment gave it as the price of the loving-cup the drug that it happened to be carrying. And so there was an exchange of gifts: the ass got his drink and the snake sloughed his old age, receiving in addition, so the story goes, the ass's thirst. What then? Did I invent the legend? I will deny it, for before me it is celebrated by Sophocles, the tragic poet, and Dinolochus, the rival of Epicharmus, and Ibycus of Rhegium, and the comic poets Aristias and Apollophanes.
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§ 6.52 Were I to pass over a piece of cleverness on the part of an Elephant, someone will say that I failed through ignorance to record it. And it is really worth hearing, so let us hear it. The man who was entrusted with the care of its food was in the habit of purloining its corn, and by scattering stones underneath it he rendered most of the food uneatable, while preserving the bulk of the measure, so far as the master who supervised them both could see. And for a while he escaped detection. So the Elephant, observing the designing fellow as he was cooking some porridge, picked up with its trunk a mass of sand at its feet and flung it into the pot, thus adroitly avenging the treatment it had received at his hands.
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§ 6.53 All other Dogs are clever at catching and tracking down wild animals; Egyptian Dogs however excel at running away. Thus, although they dread the creatures in the Nile, thirst compels them to drink, while their fear does not allow them to drink in peace as much as they want. For that reason they do not put their heads down and drink, for fear some creature from below may creep up and seize them; and so they run along the brink, lapping with their tongue and snatching or, one might say, positively stealing their drink.
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§ 6.54 I have already mentioned many other crafty tricks of the Land Echinus (hedgehog), not the Sea Echinus (sea-urchin), but one specimen of its guile which I failed to mention I will mention now. When it is likely to be caught it rolls itself up, which makes it impossible to handle; moreover it holds its breath and remains motionless and pretends to be dead.
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§ 6.55 You would not succeed in dislodging Limpets from the rocks, even were you to grasp them with the fingers of a Milo who clung with such strength and tenacity to a pomegranate-tree that not one of his opponents could wrench it from his right hand. But anyone who undertakes to dislodge a Limpet from the rock to which it is clinging is laughed at for his pains and affords merriment to others. At all events it is impossible for him to get what he wants. An iron saw will at long last detach it from the rock.
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§ 6.56 It appears that the Libyans do not confine themselves to waging war upon their neighbours with a view to gaining an advantage over them, but they hum wage war upon Elephants also. And the latter are well aware that the purpose of their attack is nothing else than to get their tusks. So those beasts that have had one tusk mutilated stand in the front line, the rest of the herd using them as a cover in order that they may receive the first assault and that the rest may help with the strength of their tusks undamaged and equal to the struggle. And perhaps they are trying to convince the Libyans and to prove to them that they are risking their lives for an in-considerable reward. One of their tusks they use as a weapon and keep sharpened; the other they use as a mattock, for with it they dig up roots and lever up and bend down trees.
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§ 6.57 It seems after all that Spiders are not only dexterous weavers after the manner of Athena the web worker and goddess of the Loom, but that they are by nature clever at geometry. Thus, they keep to the centre and fix with the utmost precision the circle ■with its boundary based upon it, and have no need of Euclid, for they sit at the very middle and lie in wait for their prey. And they are, as you might say, most excellent weavers and adept at repairing their web. And any thread that you may chance to break of their skilled and delicate workmanship they repair and render sound and whole again.
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§ 6.58 The Phoenix knows how to reckon five hundred years without the aid of arithmetic, for it is a pupil of all-wise Nature, so that it has no need of fingers or anything else to aid it in the understanding of numbers. The purpose of this knowledge and the need for it are matters of common report. But hardly a soul among the Egyptians knows when the five-hundred-year period is completed; only a very few know, and they belong to the priestly order. But in fact the priests have difficulty in agreeing on these points, and banter one another and maintain that it is not now but at some date later than when it was due that the divine bird will arrive. Meantime while they are vainly squabbling, the bird miraculously guesses the period by signs and appears. And the priests are obliged to give way and confess that they devote their time'to putting the sun to rest with their talk'; but they do not know as much as birds. But, in God's name, is it not wise to know where Egypt is situated, where is Heliopolis whither the bird is destined to come, and where it must bury its father and in what kind of coffin? But if there is nothing wonderful in all this, are we really to pronounce as'wise' affairs relating to the market, to armaments, and men's other schemes for their mutual undoing? I think not, you men who rival Sisyphus and the Cercopes and the Telchines. I address myself to those who perfect themselves in these matters, but not to those who have not been initiated into the aforesaid abominations.
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§ 6.59 If even animals know how to reason deductively, understand dialectic, and how to choose one thing in preference to another, we shall be justified in asserting that in all subjects Nature is an instructress without a rival. For example, this was told me by one who had some experience in dialectic and was to some degree a devotee of the chase. There was a Hound, he said, trained to hunt; and so it was on the track of a hare. And the hare was not yet to be seen, but the Hound pursuing came upon a ditch and was puzzled as to whether it had better follow to the left or to the right. And when it seemed to have weighed the matter sufficiently, it leapt straight across. So the man who professed himself both dialectician and huntsman essayed to offer the proof' his statements in the following manner: The hound paused and reflected and said to itself:'The hare turned either in this direction or in that or went ahead. It turned neither in this direction nor in that; therefore it went ahead.' And in my opinion; was not being sophistical, for as no tracks were visible on the near side of the ditch, it remained that the hare must have jumped over the ditch. So the hound was quite right also to jump over after it, for certainty that this particular Hound was good at tracking and keen-scented.
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§ 6.60 The Massagetae, according to Herodotus hang up their quivers in front of themselves and then the man has commerce with the woman openly, even though all can see, though in fact they pay no attention. Camels however would never couple in the open, nor if there were witnesses, so to say, looking on. But whether we are to call this modesty or a mysterious gift of Nature, let us leave to Democritus and others to decide and suppose themselves competent to investigate and explain the causes of matters obscure and past conjecture. And even the herdsman at once takes himself off when he realises that the urge to couple is upon them, just as one withdraws when the bride and bridegroom are about to enter the marriage-chamber.
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§ 6.61 Lycurgus laid down a most humane law (as I think), viz that younger men should give up their respect, and leave the path for, their elders out of respect for years which all pray they may attain, if that chance to be their destiny. But how could the noble son of Eunomus seek to rival and compete with the laws of Nature? At any rate, you lawgivers, men like Lycurgus, Solon, Zaleucus, and Charondas, the race of Elephants obeys laws which your legislation does not even begin to touch. For all that, they behave in the following manner: the young ones give way to the elders in feeding; they wait upon those that are weak with age; they guard them from danger; when they fall into pits the young ones drag them out by throwing in armfuls, so to say, and bundles of dry sticks which the elders use as steps and so climb out, though burdened with age. Where, I should like to know, did an Elephant ever belabour its sire with blows? Where, I ask, among Elephants did a sire ever disinherit its son? But perhaps, my fellow men, you who (if I am to speak the truth) fabricate and invent incredible tales, think that I am telling tales.
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§ 6.62 What I have said above proves that the Dog of Gelon certainly loves his master, and so I think I should put the following story beside the rest. Gelon of Syracuse while fast asleep fancied that he had been struck by Zeus. But what he saw was only a dream; yet, although asleep he cried aloud and at the top of his voice. Whereupon a Dog which he kept, hearing the voice of its friend and comrade, as though Gelon's life was in danger from a plot, leapt with all its force on to the bed and stood over its master, barking furiously, as though it would keep off the assailant. So Gelon was roused and through fear and the noise of barking threw off sleep though it was of the deepest.
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§ 6.63 A young Snake was brought up along with a child, an Arcadian born; the snake too was of the country. So as the pair grew up the child became a youth while his foster-brother had already become enormous. And they were devoted to one another. But the relatives of the youth were terrified at the size of the monster. (You may see these creatures attain in a very short time to an enormous size and the most terrifying aspect.) And so while it was asleep on the same bed with the boy, they picked it up and took it as far away as possible. And the boy rose up, but the Snake remained in that place. And when it took to the forest and the drugs that grew there, it lived there, enjoying the food of snakes and preferring waste places to life in a city and confinement in a room. Time passed and turned one into a young man, the other into a Snake now full-grown. And on one occasion the Arcadian, the lover and the beloved of the aforesaid creature, going through a lonely region, fell in with brigands, and at a blow from a sword he cried out, as was natural, both from pain and in order to summon help. Now it seems that the Snake of all creatures has the sharpest sight and the keenest hearing. Accordingly this Snake, being the youth's foster-brother, heard his voice and hissing loudly as in anger, struck terror into the brigands, who were seized with trembling: the villains were all scattered in different directions, and what is more, some were overtaken by the Snake and perished miserably. But the Snake cleansed the wounds of its old friend, and after escorting him past that part of the region where wild beasts lurked, departed and went to the spot where the relations had exposed it: it showed no resentment at having been cast away, nor did it in the hour of danger, like base men, neglect one who had been its dearest friend.
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§ 6.64 The Fox is a rascally creature, hence poets are fond of calling it'crafty.' The Hedgehog also is a rascal, for directly it sees the Fox approaching it rolls itself into a ball and lies still. And the Fox, unable to open his jaws and bite it, makes water into its mouth. And the Hedgehog is suffocated because its breathing is stopped through its being rolled up and because of the aforesaid stream. Moreover the Fox having thus tricked the Hedgehog, one scoundrel tricking another, catches it out. I have earlier described another method of capture.
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§ 6.65 In the neighbourhood of Conopeum as it is called (it is a district near the Maeotic lake ) wolves are the faithful companions of the anglers and the fisherfolk, and were you to see them you would say that they were no different from house- dogs. Now if these wolves receive a share of the catch from the sea, there is a treaty of peace between them and the fishermen. Otherwise the wolves rip up and destroy the nets, and for failing to give them a share inflict this damage upon the fishermen.
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§ 7.1 BOOK VII I have ascertained that the cows in Susa are not unacquainted even with arithmetic. And that this is no idle boast the following story bears witness, in Susa the King has a large number of cows of which each one draws one hundred buckets /daily) of water for the drier places in his parks. Now they perform with the utmost zest the task which has either been heaped upon them or to which they have long been accustomed, and you would never see one of them idling. If however you were to urge them to draw so much as one bucketful in excess of the century, you will neither persuade nor compel them, whether by blows or by soft words, to do so. This is what Ctesias says.
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§ 7.2 At the foot of Atlas (this mountain is celebrated by historians and also by poets) there are marvellous pasture-lands and forests of the deepest, whose dense foliage is like that of groves all shady and over-arched. And that, you know, is where elephants are said to resort in old age when heavy with years. And Nature leads them as it were to a colony, giving hem rest at last and providing them with a desired anchorage and harbour, so to speak, where they can live out the rest of their life. And they have a spring of drinking-water pure and welling up abundantly; and they are regarded as sacred and are allowed to go unmolested; and they have an agreement with the barbarians in those parts that they shall not be hunted; and it is commonly said that they are under the care of certain gods of the district who are lords of wood and valley. And there is a story current about them, as follows. A certain king of that country was eager to kill some of them on account of the splendour and size of their tusks, in order to obtain a choice possession, for with the multitude of years and the lengthening of time these weapons of these creatures become enormous. So when this desire came upon him he despatched three hundred picked men to shoot this sacred herd. And all equipped they accomplished their journey with the utmost speed, and were actually nearing the spot when a pestilence suddenly seized them and laid them low: all died save only one, and he returned and rendered to him who had sent them a full account of the truly lamentable disaster. By this means it was discovered that the elephants were beloved of the gods.
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§ 7.3 There is an animal in Paeonia called Monops, and it is the size of a shaggy bull. Now when this creature is pursued, in its agitation it voids a fiery and acrid dung, so I am told; and should this happen to fall on any of the hunters, it kills him.
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§ 7.4 It seems that a special characteristic of the Bull is its docility, once it has been tamed and from being savage become gentle. At any rate Bulls remain quiet when harnessed to litters, or if you want them to lie still on their back or with their head on the ground or to sink down on their knees and carry a boy or a girl on their neck. And you will even see a Bull bearing a woman on its back or standing erect on its hind legs while it supports with ease the entire weight of its body on some object or other. And I have even seen men dancing on the backs of Bulls, and the same men motionless there also and standing undislodged.
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§ 7.5 Libya is the parent of a great number and a great variety of wild animals, and moreover it seems that the same country produces the animal called the Katoblepon (down-looking). In appearance it is about the size of a bull, but it has a more grim expression, for its eyebrows are high and shaggy, and the eyes beneath are not large like those of oxen but narrower and bloodshot. And they do not look straight ahead but down on to the ground: that is why it is called'down-looking.' And a mane that begins on the crown of its head and resembles horsehair, falls over its forehead covering its face, which makes it more terrifying when one meets it. And it feeds upon poisonous roots. When it glares like a bull it immediately shudders and raises its mane, and when this has risen erect and the lips about its mouth are bared, it emits from its throat pungent and foul-smelling breath), so that the whole air overhead is infected, and any animals that approach and inhale it are grievously afflicted, lose their voice, and are seized with fatal convulsions. This beast is conscious of its power; and other animals know it too and flee from it as far away as they can.
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§ 7.6 Those who are adept at hunting Elephants constantly tell us that when these beasts are pursued they dash forward and are carried along with irresistible force and an impetus that nothing can withstand; there is no stopping them; they even rush through the largest trees as though they were standing corn, smashing the trees like corn-stalks. In one place the trees overtop them and hold their leaves above them, in another they themselves are higher than the trees. Indeed they run with all their might and baffle their pursuers by the course they take; which is natural, for they are familiar with the country. And when they have got far away and are at a great distance ahead of the pursuing horsemen and have regained their courage through being secure from danger and feeling free, they pause and rest and are most glad to lay aside their anxious fears. And then at this time they bethink them of food. They feed, so I hear, on the bushy mastic that grows around the trees and the wild ivy that creeps with its dense foliage over them, also upon the young and tender leaves of the date-palm and upon the more sappy shoots and twigs of other plants. But if their pursuers again approach, the Elephants once more take to flight. And so when evening has overtaken them the pursuers bivouac, and by setting fire to the forest to some extent cut off the Elephants' retreat and so bring them to a standstill. For Elephants no less than lions have a horror of fire.
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§ 7.7 I learn from Aristotle that cranes flying in to land from the sea indicate to the intelligent man that a violent storm is threatening. But if the same birds are flying tranquilly, that is a promise of fine weather and a calm atmosphere; and if they make no sound they are reminding those who have experience that it will be fairly calm. And if they (fly in from the sea)? uttering their cries and confusing their order in their agitation, there again they are threatening a heavy storm. And if a shearwater utters its cry at dusk, it apparently signifies the same; if it flies straight to the sea, it is giving a hint that a rainstorm will burst from the sky. If however the weather is stormy, the hooting of an owl portends fair weather and a bright day; whereas if the weather is fair and the owl hoots softly, you must expect storms. If a raven croaks volubly and pecks and shakes its wings, it is the first to observe that a storm is coming. Again, if the raven, the crow, and the jackdaw utter their cries in the late afternoon, they teach us that we shall have a visitation by a storm. And if jackdaws, as the same writer says, scream like hawks and fly now high now low, they point to frost and rain. If a crow caws softly at supper-time, it is inviting us to expect fair weather next day. If birds appear in great numbers and they are white, it is a certain indication that there will be heavy storms. When ducks and shearwaters flap their wings, they point to violent winds. And when birds come speeding into land from the sea, this is evidence of stormy weather. If the robin comes to cattle -sheds and houses, he is clearly trying to escape from a coming storm. Cockerels too and domestic fowls, when they flap their wings and step proudly and cluck, signify stormy weather. When birds bathe, it is a sign that wind is threatening, and it points to gusty weather. If during a storm birds fly towards one another and in and out it is a sign of fine weather. When birds congregate about meres and on river banks, they know that a storm is coming. On the other hand when birds of the sea and lake come in to land, they know that there will be a heavy storm, whereas land birds hastening to moist places are heralds of fine weather, if, that is, they make no sound.
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§ 7.8 I have heard that the Egyptians assert that the antelope is the first creature to know when the Dog-star rises, and testifies to the fact by sneezing. The Libyans are equally bold in stoutly maintaining that in their country the goats also know in advance; they also give clear signs of impending rain. For when they emerge from their pens they rush at full speed to their fodder. Later, when satisfied, they turn towards home, and facing in that direction remain still and wait for the herdsman to gather them in as quickly as possible. And Hipparchus in the reign of Hiero the tyrant was sitting in the theatre wearing a leathern jerkin, and astonished people by knowing in advance out of the clear weather then prevalent that a storm was coming. And Hiero in his admiration of the man congratulated the people of Nicaea in Bithynia on having Hipparchus as a citizen. And when at Olympia Anaxagoras, likewise clad in a leathern jerkin, was watching the Olympic Games and a storm of rain burst, all Hellas sang his praises, and claimed that his wisdom was more that of a god than of a man. And few if any are surprised that an ox, if rain threatens, lies down on his right side, contrariwise if fair weather is coming, on his left. And I have also heard the following facts which are calculated to astonish one. If an ox bellows and sniifs the air, rain is inevitable. And if oxen eat copiously and more than is their custom, it portends a storm. When sheep dig the ground with their hoofs, it is likely to mean a storm; and if the rams mount them early in the day, it promises an early storm; and the same when goats lie huddled together. When pigs appear in cornland, they inform us that the rain is departing. Now when lambs and kids leap on one another and frisk about, they promise a bright day. But when martens squeak and mice likewise, they are conjecturing that there will be a violent storm. When wolves quit lonely places and make straight for inhabited districts, they show thereby that they dread the onslaught of a coming storm. If a lion visits cornlands, it presages a drought. And if beasts of burden gambol and low more than is their custom, it shows that storm and rain are on their way; and if besides, they toss up the dust with their hoofs, it signifies the same. If hares are seen in great numbers in the same places, it signifies fair weather. In all these matters men fall behind: they only know these changes when they occur.
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§ 7.9 Here are further facts which I have heard touching Hawks. The ministers of Apollo in Egypt say that there are certain men called'hawk-keepers' for this reason: they feed and tend the Hawks belonging to the god. Now the whole race of Hawks is consecrated to this god, but there are certain sacred birds which are fed upon carefully prepared food and which seem in nowise to differ from offerings made to the god. Now the men who have been charged with the care of these birds tell the uninformed that each of them (they are tended in a sacred grove) lays eggs in its nest. They have, it is true, the care of all Hawks, but these sacred ones are their special charge. They take out the brains of birds which have been caught and throw them to the newly born Hawks: soft food for tender chicks. But to those that are full-grown the keepers serve flesh and sinews, which furnish strengthening nourishment for birds of prey. Those however that are in the intermediate stage between chicks and full-grown birds are served with the hearts/ and one may see the remains of them. So the aforesaid difference of foods concedes the point that Hawks know what is appropriate and agreeable to each age; and they are particular about it and would never touch food unsuited to their age. At a certain season quails visit their country and other birds arrive in flocks, and these sacred Hawks feast on them also.
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§ 7.10 The following story, I think, also affords evidence of the unbreakable affection which Dogs have for those who keep them. In one of the civil wars at Rome when Galba the Roman was murdered, there was not one of the man's enemies that was able to cut off his head, although countless numbers competed for this trophy, until they had killed the Hound at his side that had been reared under his care and that maintained its affection with the utmost loyalty and fought on behalf of its dead master, as though it were a fellow soldier, sharer of the same tent, and friend to the very last. It is worth knowing'what a deed was this, wrought' not'by a man', I declare, but by a faithful Hound of valiant spirit. Pyrrhus of Epirus was on a journey when he came upon the corpse of a man who had been killed, with his Dog standing beside and guarding its master to prevent anybody from adding outrage to murder. Now it happened that this was the third day for which the Dog was keeping its assiduous and most patient watch, unfed. And so when Pyrrhus learnt this he took pity on the dead man and ordered him to be buried; but as for the Dog, he directed that it should be cared for and gave it whatever one offers a dog with one's hand, in sufficient quantity and of a nature to induce it to be friendly and well-disposed towards him; and little by little Pyrrhus drew the Dog away. So much then for that. Now not so long after, there was a review of the hoplites, and the King whom I mentioned above was looking on, and that same Dog was at his side. For most of the time it remained silent and completely gentle. But directly it saw the murderers of its master in the review, it could not contain itself or remain where it was, but leaped upon them, barking and tearing them with its claws, and by frequently turning towards Pyrrhus did its best to make him see that it had caught the murderers. And so a suspicion dawned upon the King and those about him, and the way in which the Dog barked at the aforesaid men caused them to reflect. The men were seized and put on the rack and confessed their crime. To those who trample upon the ordinance of Zeus the god of fellowship and of aifection and betray their friends in life and after death, all this seems a mere tale. But for my part I do not follow those who fail to appreciate the excellence of Nature which, if she has given brutes a share of kindliness and affection, has certainly given a larger share to us rational beings. But they make no use of her gift. And what need is there to add to my story all the other crimes which men have committed against their friends for the sake of base gain, hatching plots and acting the traitor? It fills me with pain that a Dog should be shown to have more loyalty, more kindly feeling than man.
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§ 7.11 Here is another story which has come to my Octc ears: it is about the Octopus. There was a rock rising from the sea, though not to a great height. Now once upon a time an Octopus crawled up it and spread out its tentacles and was glad to warm itself (the weather was inclined to be stormy), though it did not at once assume the colour of the rock. Octopuses do this naturally, to protect themselves against those who have designs upon them, and also that they themselves may ambush fishes. Now an Eagle, quick to mark its prey (though it got no good thereby), swooped with all the force of its wings upon the Octopus, reckoning to secure a ready meal for itself and its young. But the creature's tentacles wreathed themselves round the Eagle, and clinging fast to its hated enemy dragged it down, a case of'The hungry wolf,' as you might say. And presently the Eagle was floating dead upon the sea for the sake of its meal. Birds in fact suffer countless misadventures of this kind, and men even more: for example, Cyrus the Second, the son of Cambyses, among the Massagetae celebrated by Herodotus; Polycrates also who hastened to Oroetes with the intention of laying hands on his gold, and any who'working for another's ill, wreaks ill for his own heart.' Brute beasts do not realise these dangers; human beings do, but fail to guard against them. What use to you, Cyrus and Polycrates, were a tongue, speech, teachers, beatings? I say nothing of the others, for why should I give the most profitable advice to men who are deaf and senseless?
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§ 7.12 Let the women of Paeonia be proud: let them assume arrogant airs, since their conduct is celebrated. This is what they do: on their head they carry a vessel full of water, their neck held straight so that as they walk the vessel shall remain erect without upsetting. They attach their children to their breast before suckling them; and fastening the rein of their husband's horse to one arm lead it to drink, while they use their hands to spin thread. It was this that moved Darius to admiration when some young Paeonians, having equipped their sister in the manner described, brought her before him as he sat in judgment, in order that he might be attracted by such a concentration of self-help and show mercy to their country. And yet how far more impressive is Nature than the Paeonian women. A bitch was hunting; the quarry was a hare and the bitch was pregnant. As soon as she had attained the object of her pursuit, she left it to her master and drawing aside, dropped (so they say) nine puppies, which she then reared. And if the women of Liguria pride themselves that they also after giving birth rise up and devote themselves to their household duties, they will, on hearing what the aforesaid bitch did, forgo their pride and hide their heads in shame.
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§ 7.13 Aristotle has told the story of the labour-loving Mule, and so have we earlier on, but the episode of the Dog, which also occurred in Athens, is not irrelevant. A temple-thief who had waited for the midmost hour of night and had watched till men were deep asleep, came to the shrine of Asclepius and stole a number of offerings without, as he supposed, being seen. There was however in the temple an excellent watcher, a Dog, more awake than the attendants, and it gave chase to the thief and never stopped barking, as with all its might it summoned others to witness what had been done. And so at first the thief and his companions in that crime pelted the Dog with stones; finally he dangled bread and cakes in front of it. He had been careful to bring these things with him as an attraction to Dogs, as he supposed. Since however the Dog continued to bark when the thief came to the house where he lodged and when he came out again, it was dis-covered where the Dog belonged, while the inscriptions and the places where the offerings were set up lacked the missing objects. The Athenians therefore concluded that this man was the thief, and by putting him on the rack discovered the whole affair. And the man was sentenced in accordance with the law, while the Dog was rewarded by being fed and cared for at the public expense for being a faithful watcher and second to none of the attendants in vigilance.
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§ 7.14 The Goat, it seems, is in fact skilful at curing that mist of the eyes which doctors call'cataract,' and it is even said that men have learnt this cure from the Goat. The method is as follows. When the Goat perceives that its sight has become clouded it goes to a bramble and applies its eye to a thorn. The thorn pricks it and the fluid is discharged, but the pupil remains unharmed and the Goat regains its sight without any need of man's skill and manipulation.
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§ 7.15 Young Elephants cross a river by swimming, but the full-grown ones, if covered by the stream, raise their trunks above the water, while the mother-elephants carry their newly born young upon their tusks. It is the young who take the lead in danger and hardship; out of respect for their elders they give way to them in drinking and feeding, and they have no need at all of the laws of Lycurgus. An Elephant old and weak or stricken with disease would never be abandoned by his fellows in the herd, but they stay beside him loyally and hasten to lend him strength on all occasions, especially when they are being pursued; and they fight on his behalf and through staying by him receive wounds, when they could escape. The females would never desert the young they have borne, but they too remain loyally at their side even though hunters press hard upon them, and they would sooner relinquish their life than their offspring. When I was a boy I knew an aged woman, Laenilla by name, and everybody used to point at her, and a story was told of her to this effect. My elders used to tell me that she had passionately loved a servant and used to sleep with him, thereby bringing a slur upon her own children. They were well-born and belonged to the Senatorial order in Rome by descent from their fathers and remoter ancestors. Now the children for very shame were angry with their mother for her behaviour and admonished her gently and spoke to her in private of the shamefulness of her conduct. But she, seething with lust and putting her love above her sons, accused them before the magistrate, alleging that they were plotting against him. The magistrate having a ready ear for calumny, and being of a suspicious and cowardly nature (those are attributes of an ignoble character), believed her. So her sons who had done no wrong were put to death, while the woman reaped the reward of her informing and slept freely with the slave. O gods of our fathers, O Artemis of the child-bed, and ye goddesses of birth, daughters of Hera, why, when we recall calamities that befell recently and in our own day, should we speak any more of Colchian Medea or Attic Procne?
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§ 7.16 Eagles seize tortoises and then dash them on rocks from a height, and having smashed the tortoise's shell they extract and eat the flesh. It was in this way, I am told, that Aeschylus of Eleusis, the tragic poet, met his end. Aeschylus was seated upon a rock, meditating, I suppose, and writing as usual. He had no hair on his head and was bald. Now an Eagle supposing his head to be a rock, let the tortoise which it was holding fall upon it. And the missile struck the aforesaid poet and killed him.
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§ 7.17 The Ceryl and the Halcyon feed side by side and live together.... And when the Ceryls are feeble with age the Halcyons place them on their back and carry them about upon their middle wing-feathers, as they are called. Women however look down upon those who are ageing, and cast their eyes on youths. And husbands are eager after girls and take no notice of their elderly legal wives: creatures gifted with speech are not ashamed to live more unreasonably than unreasoning animals.
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§ 7.18 The Egyptians who live about the region called Coptus assert that no more than a pair of Ravens is seen there. And even those Romans who guard the mountain district because of the Emerald Mine, they also maintain that the same number of this species live there. And in that place there is a temple in honour of Apollo to whom, they say, the birds are sacred.
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§ 7.19 Here again I may as well speak of the peculiarities of animals. The sheep and the ass seem inclined to be sluggish; fawns, roe-deer, gazelles, antelopes, hares (which poets style'cowerers') are timorous creatures. Timorous also are sparrows among birds, and the mullet among fishes. Baboons and goats are lecherous, and it is even said that the latter have intercourse with women — a fact which Pindar appears to marvel at. And even hounds are said to have assaulted women, and indeed it is reported that a woman in Rome was accused by her husband of adultery, and the adulterer in the case was stated to be a hound. And I have heard that baboons have fallen madly in love with girls and have even raped them, being more wanton than the little boys in the all-night revels of Menander. The partridge is extremely lecherous and given to adultery; at any rate these birds are said to go after the hens stealthily and with hardly a sound. Dogs do not admit others to share their food on any account; at any rate they often tear one another over a bone, just like Menelaus and Paris over Helen. I am told that the dogs of Memphis are the only ones that pool their prey and share their food. The hog is implacable and devoid of justice; at any rate these creatures eat one another's dead bodies. And the majority of fishes do the same. But the most impious of all is the hippopotamus, for it even eats its own father. Flies and dogs are without shame and are not easily checked.
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§ 7.20 Wolves are exceedingly fierce, and the Hung Egyptians assert that they even eat one another, and that the way in which they plot against each other is, they say, as follows. They gather round in a circle and then start to run. And when any of their number is overcome with dizziness from running round and round and collapses, the rest fall upon him as he lies, tear him to pieces, and eat him. They do this whenever their hunting is unsuccessful. For with them, provided they do not go hungry, nothing else counts; just as with evil men nothing counts but money.
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§ 7.21 It seems that the Monkey is the most mischievous of animals; and even worse when it attempts to copy man. For example, a Monkey observed from a distance a nurse washing a baby in a tub, observed how first of all she took off its swaddling clothes and then after the bath wrapped it up; it marked where she laid it to rest, and when it saw the place unguarded, sprang in through an open window, from which it had a view of everything; took the baby from its cot; stripped it as it had chanced to see the nurse do; brought the tub out, and (there was water heating on some embers) poured boiling water over the wretched baby and even caused it to die most miserably.
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§ 7.22 It seems that the Hyena also and the Corocottas, as they call it, are viciously clever animals. At any rate the Hyena prowls about cattle -folds by night and imitates men vomiting. And at the sound dogs come up, thinking it is a man. Whereupon it seizes and devours them. I shall now relate the villainy of the Corocottas, of which I have actually heard. It conceals itself in thickets and then listens to woodcutters calling one another by name, and even to anything they say. And then it imitates their voices and speaks (though the story may be fabulous) with a voice that sounds human at any rate, calling out the name which it has heard. And the man who has been called approaches: the animal withdraws and calls again: the man follows the voice all the more. But when it has drawn him away from his fellow-workers and has got him alone, it seizes him and kills him and then makes a meal off him.
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§ 7.23 The Lion knows how to take vengeance on one who has previously done him an injury, and even though the vengeance be not immediate,'yet doth he keep his anger thereafter in his bosom, until he accomplish it'. And Juba of Mauretania, the father of the boy who was a hostage at Rome, bears witness to this. He was marching once through the desert against some tribes who had revolted, when one of the youths who ran beside him, well-born, handsome, and already fond of the chase, struck with a javelin a Lion that chanced to appear by the roadside: he hit the mark and wounded the beast, but failed to kill it. But the expedition was in haste; the animal drew off, and the boy who had wounded it hurried by with the rest. Now when a whole year had passed and Juba had accomplished his purpose, returning by the same way he arrived at the spot where the Lion had happened to be wounded. And in spite of the multitude of men that same Lion came forward and, without touching anyone else, seized him who a year ago had wounded it, and pouring forth the gathered anger which it had been nursing all that while, tore to pieces the boy whom it had recognised. But not a soul took vengeance: they were afraid of the fierce and absolutely terrifying anger of the Lion. And besides, their journey made them hasten.
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§ 7.24 I have heard that there are different species and various tribes of Crabs, for there are some that live on rocks, but there are others besides, which mud, seaweed, and sand generate. And they have many shapes and many names. And the Runner-crabs as they are called (and most appropriately) roam hither and thither, for it is neither their wish nor their nature to remain quiet and at rest in the same place, but they wander about the beaches where they were born; and they do in fact go further afield, just as human beings who are fond of travel. The occasion of their wandering so far is their desire for more food of some kind. Now in the Thracian Bosphorus whenever the current comes down strongly from the Euxine, the Crabs wish to force their way upstream, but, as is natural, the stream breaks with too great violence round the headlands, so that if they should want to go against it, it will altogether thrust them back and defeat them. Now the Crabs are already aware of this, and whenever they come near a headland each one halts in some bay-like spot and waits for the others. Then when they have congregated in one spot, they crawl up on to the land and scramble up on to the cliffs and so pass by on foot that part of the sea where the current is strongest. Then having surmounted and passed the promontory, they descend once more to the sea. But the fishermen spare them because it is of their own free will that the Crabs crawl out on to the land: the men wish also to be spared themselves: they cannot bear to appear more cruel than the waves.
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§ 7.25 I know that I have somewhere earlier on spoken of jealousy on the part of an animal not only extremely prudent but also extremely continent: it was, if my memory is sound, the Purple Coot. And I have now heard of a Lap- dog in Sicily that was the enemy of adulterers and a bitter foe to all of that class. The adulterer had concealed himself indoors, the lecherous woman having heard that her husband was returning from a journey; and the man was, as he supposed, well-situated for a hiding-place: for the servants, or those who were in league with their mistress to conceal the crime (there were'such as were stewards of mirrors and of perfumes,' as Euripides says), and the doorkeepers too had been bribed, and this made the adulterer bold. However matters did not turn out as intended; far from it. For the Lap- dog kept barking and even scratching with its paws at the door in such a way as to alarm the master and to cause him by its action to guess that there was some mischief lurking. So naturally enough he threw open the door and caught the adulterer. The man had a sword and was waiting till night fell so that he might kill the master of the house and thereupon marry the aforesaid woman.
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§ 7.26 Here is another example of the cleverness of Goats. They know full well that human spittle is deadly to other animals and they keep away from it, just as we also try to avoid anything that would injure a man were he to taste of it. Indeed it has happened before now that a man has in his ignorance and unconsciously swallowed some poison; but as to Goats, the aforesaid spittle would never take them unawares. And doubtless the same spittle is most effective at killing even sea-scolopendras. A Goat that is destined for slaughter is well aware of it: witness the fact that it will no longer touch food. And a Goat disdains to bring up the rear of a flock of sheep, but must take the lead, and proclaims it by its gait. At any rate she walks ahead of them, and the He- goat of the She- goats as well: his beard gives him confidence, and by some mysterious natural instinct he sets the male above the female.
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§ 7.27 It seems that Sheep are in fact the most readily obedient of animals and have been taught by Nature to submit to rule. At all events they give heed to the shepherd and his dogs, and they even follow goats. Also they are devoted to one another and consequently less exposed to the attacks of wolves. For a Sheep does not wander away by itself, nor yet does it separate itself from its fellow, as goats do. The Arabians maintain that their flocks grow fat upon music rather than upon fodder. They like eating saline things, because they add a flavour to their drink. Moreover Sheep know this too, viz that the north wind and the south wind, no wind less than the rams which mount them, are their allies Eli in promoting fertility. And this also they know, that whereas the north wind tends to produce males, the south wind produces females. And a Sheep that is being covered faces in this direction or in that according as it wants a male or a female offspring. So Achilles needed to pray in order that his friend lying on the pyre might be burned, and Iris summoned the winds for him, O noble Homer, promising them, if they came, a sacrifice by way of reward. And the son of Neocles taught the Athenians to sacrifice to the Winds. But Sheep without any trouble have them ready and unsummoned to help them to pregnancy. And so shepherds also are good at looking out for them. At any rate when the south wind blows they put the rams to the Sheep, in order that their offspring may preferably be female.
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§ 7.28 When Icarius was slain by the relatives of those who, after drinking wine for the first time, fell asleep (for as yet they did not know that what had happened was not death but a drunken stupor), the people of Attica suffered from a disease, Dionysus thereby (as I think) avenging the first and the most elderly man who cultivated his plants. At any rate the Pythian oracle declared that if they wanted to be restored to health they must offer sacrifice to Icarius and to Erigone his daughter and to her hound which was celebrated for having in its excessive love for its mistress declined to outlive her. Euripides is not serious when he says'Good slaves are grieved and their hearts are gripped when things go ill with their masters,' for where is the man who died in consequence of his master's death, although this is what a dog — a slave — did?
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§ 7.29 Now here is a further testimony to the peculiar goodwill which Dogs bear towards those who keep them. A man of Colophon arrived at Teos with the intention of buying up certain articles, for he was a merchant and made his profits by retailing and exchanging his purchases. And he brought with him money, a servant, and a Dog; and the slave carried the money. But on the journey the servant stepped aside — he had a pressing call of nature — and the Dog followed him. Now the young man put down the money-bag and forgot to pick it up again and went on his way. But the Dog lay down on the money and remained quietly there. And when the master and his servant arrived at Teos they returned without doing any business, not having the means to make purchases. They turned aside however along the same road where the servant left the purse and found their own Dog lying upon it and hardly breathing from starvation. But directly the Dog saw its master and its fellow-slave it moved off the moneybag and in the same instant gave up its post of guardian and its life. So then even the dog Argus, O divine Homer, was no fiction of yours, no poetical exaggeration, if indeed the events which I have narrated really befell the man of Teos.
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§ 7.30 There is a species of Crab called Peteliae (flyers). They are paler in appearance than other crabs and are generated in the mud. And when scared they actually fly, for they possess tiny wings which give them a slight lift and lessen their weight. When walking however they have no need of them, but when frightened these wings afford them a certain not very considerable assistance, for as they do not fly high and are unable to travel through the air, they are caught; and some people eat these crabs. And they do say that they are good for sciatica if eaten during an attack.
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§ 7.31 Hermit-crabs are born without a shell and select for themselves the shell that makes the best house for them to live in. They even enter the shell of the purple-shellfish if they can find one empty, and the shell of the whelk. And so long as it is large enough to cover them they are satisfied with their lodging. But if their body grows they migrate to another dwelling, and they find quantities of such shells.
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§ 7.32 Whelks even have a King and submit most obediently to his rule. And this King exceeds all others in size and beauty. And if it is expedient for him to sink, he is the first to do so; if to come up again, he leads the way; and when jhe moves to another place the rest follow him. The man who succeeds in catching this King knows well that his affairs will prosper. Moreover if a man sees a King Whelk being caught, he goes away in more cheerful spirits, imagining that he too will have some good fortune. And at Byzantium a prize is offered for the man who catches the aforesaid fish: each of his fellow-anglers contributes an Attic drachma to the one who catches it, and that is the prize.
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§ 7.33 Waves roll Sea-urchins out of their haunts, dash them on to the dry land, and hurl them with the utmost violence out of the sea. So for fear of this, whenever these creatures perceive the waves rippling and beginning to swell to greater violence, they pick up with their prickles as many pebbles as they can carry and have some ballast, so that they are not easily rolled about and do not undergo what they dread.
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§ 7.34 The Purple Shellfish is exceedingly gluttonous and possesses an unusually long tongue which it thrusts through everything that it can. By this means it draws in whatever it eats, and by this means it is caught. And the way in which it is hunted is this: men weave a weel, small and of close texture, and inside there is a whelk and this has been inserted in the centre of the weel. Now the Purple Shellfish struggles to extend its tongue to the utmost and to reach its prey. And it is forced to project the whole length if it is not to miss what it longs for. And when it has inserted its tongue it sucks until the tongue is so swollen with surfeiting that the creature cannot withdraw it again. So there it remains caught, and the fisherman observing this, catches for the second time what has already been caught by its own gluttony.
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§ 7.35 The Scolopendra is a creature of the sea and looks exactly like the land-scolopendra (centipede). And if a man's skin come in contact with it, he at once feels a stinging and irritation, and has the same kind of pain as from the plant they call the nettle. And Sea-anemones also produce an itching, but not so violent; and they are better to eat when the equinox is past.
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§ 7.36 Whenever Elephants are routed by hunters and begin to stampede like soldiers in war, they do not scatter and take to flight singly but in a herd, and they press against one another as they cling to their fellows. Round the outside are the young animals, the most pugnacious, you might say; in the middle the old elephants and the mothers, and beneath them the baby elephants, each mother hiding her own. And these little ones are very seldom to be seen. And even lions, if they catch sight of them herded together, lions which up to that moment have inspired fear and consternation, either flee at full speed or cower down one here and another there, like fawns, in terror of the Elephants. The Elephant does not turn and face its pursuers, unless it be to protect its young or sick ones: then it is irresistible.
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§ 7.37 When Porus the King of the Indians had received many wounds in the battle against Alexander, his Elephant proceeded with its trunk to pick out the javelins gently and cautiously; and in spite of its own numerous wounds it did not pause until it knew that its master was collapsing through copious loss of blood and was swooning. And so it lay down beneath him and remained crouching to prevent Porus from falling from a height and damaging his body even more.
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§ 7.38 Their hounds used to accompany the people of Hyrcania and Magnesia to war, and in fact these allies were an advantage and a help to them. An Athenian took with him a Dog as fellow-soldier to the battle of Marathon, and both are figured in a painting in the Stoa Poecile, nor was the Dog denied honour but received the reward of the danger it had undergone in being seen among the companions of Cynegirus, Epizelus, and Callimachus. They and the dog were painted by Micon, though some say it was not his work but that of Polygnotus of Thasos.
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§ 7.39 Those who maintain that hinds do not grow horns have no regard for witnesses to the contrary, none for Sophocles who says'And down from the steep crags came roaming an antlered hind'; and again'Lifting its nostrils... and the tynes of its antlers (the hind) moved on in peace'. This is what the son of Sophillus wrote in his Aleadae. And Euripides in his Iphigenia says'But I will place in the very hands of the Achaeans an antlered hind, which they will slay and boast they have slain thy daughter'. And the same Euripides says in his Temenidae that the'Labour' of Heracles had horns, in the following verses:'And he came in quest of the golden-horned deer, braving one fearful task in his mighty labours, over mountain haunts to meadows untrodden, and to groves where flocks graze' And the Theban minstrel in one of his Epinician odes sings thus:' Necessity laid upon him by Eurystheus through his father urged him on to fetch the hind with the golden horns'. And Anacreon says of the Hind'Even as a new-born fawn unweaned, which, when forsaken by its horned mother in the forest, is affrighted'. Those who falsify the reading and go so far as to say that we should write έροεσσης (for κεροέσσης) are soundly refuted by Aristophanes of Byzantium; and I am convinced by his refutation.
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§ 7.40 Now here are further instances afforded by dogs of loyalty unsurpassable. When Polus the tragic actor died and his body was burning, the dog which he had kept sprang on to the pyre and was burned to death along with him. When the body of Mentor was burning, his Eretrian hounds of their own accord were burned to death and shared his end. Theodoras / an excellent harp-player, was placed in the coffin by his relatives, and his Maltese Lap- dog threw itself into the receptacle and was buried along with him. And I have heard that there is a race of beings in Ethiopia among whom a Dog is king, and they obey his Dog as wishes: when he whimpers they know that he is in a good temper, but when he barks they understand that he is angry. If Hermippus is in anyone's view a competent authority, he should carry conviction from having cited Aristocreon as a witness to his story. This has not escaped my notice and it was opportune that I remembered it.
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§ 7.41 Lacydes the peripatetic philosopher possessed a remarkable goose. At any rate it was deeply devoted to its keeper: when he went for a walk, it went too; when he sat down, it would remain still and would not leave him for a moment. And when it died Lacydes gave it a most costly funeral as though he were burying a son or a brother. And Pyrrhus of Epirus had an elephant which was so fond of its master that when Pyrrhus was killed at Argos, though its driver had fallen off, it would not halt and remain still until it had rescued him from the hands of the enemy and had brought him back to his friends.
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§ 7.42 Thales of Miletus repaid the malice of a Mule Ttaiies which he detected with great subtlety. A Mule was carrying a load of salt and once, when crossing a river, by accident stumbled and was upset. Consequently the salt was soaked and melted, and the Mule was delighted to be eased of its burden. So the Mule realising the difference between labour and relaxation took a lesson for the future from its accident and deliberately contrived what before it had unwillingly undergone. It was impossible for the muleteer to drive it by any other road away from the river. So when Thales heard the man's explanation, he thought that he must contrive to punish the Mule for its malice and ordered the man to load it with sponges and wool on top of the salt. But the Mule all unaware of the plot stumbled as usual, and having saturated its burden with water, realised that its trick was turned to its own undoing; so after that it made the crossing without disturbance and kept control of its legs and preserved the salt undamaged.
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§ 7.43 I learn that at Antioch in Syria there was a tame Elephant and that as it went to its feeding-grounds it used to take great pleasure in the sight of a woman who sold garlands, and would stand close by her and clean her face with its trunk. Accordingly the woman used to hang out as a bait to charm it a garland woven of the season's flowers, and every day it was the Elephant's practice to accept, and hers to offer it. In course of time the woman departed this life, and the Elephant, missing its customary fare and not seeing the woman of its desire, grew savage like a lover who has lost his loved one. And the creature that till then had been of the gentlest was inflamed with passion like men who are overwhelmed with excess of grief and driven out of their senses.
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§ 7.44 Elephants do obeisance to the rising sun by lifting their trunks like hands to face its beams, and that, you see, is why they are beloved of the god. Let Ptolemy Philopator be a trustworthy witness to the fact. With the aid of the god he overcame Antiochus, and in sacrificing for his victory and to propitiate the Sun he not only offered sacrifices on a magnificent scale but even went so far as to offer four of the very largest elephants as victims, paying homage, as he supposed, to the god by this very sacrifice. But a vision in his sleep troubled him: the god seemed to threaten him for this unusual and strange offering. And he in his fear caused four elephants to be made of bronze and offered them to the god in place of those he had slaughtered, hoping to placate him and to ensure his favour. Elephants for their part worship the gods, whereas mankind is in doubt whether in fact there are gods, and, if there are, whether they take thought for us.
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§ 7.45 (i). The Priests of Egypt do not purify themselves with water of every kind, nor even with such water as they may chance upon, but only with that from which they believe an Ibis has drunk. For they know full well that this bird would never drink water that was dirty or that had been tainted with any drugs; for they believe that the bird possesses a certain prophetic faculty, seeing that it is sacred. (ii). I learn that unwounded Elephants pick spears and javelins out of those that have been wounded, with caution, just as though they understood the practice of surgery and had acquired skill in these matters. (iii). It seems that people in olden times paid Nieto regard even to brute beasts in the following way. Pyrrhus of Epirus delighted to be called the Eagle,' and Antiochus, so it is said, to be called'the Hawk.' I have mentioned these cases together, different though they are; an intelligent man will find them worth knowing.
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§ 7.46 Mithridates of Pontus when asleep was unwilling to entrust his own safety to weapons and spearmen, and for that reason he kept as bodyguard a bull, a horse, and a stag that had been tamed. Accordingly these animals guarded him while he slept, and if ever anyone approached they at once perceived it by his breathing. And they would wake the King, the bull by bellowing, the horse by neighing, and the stag by bleating.
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§ 7.47 The young offspring of wild animals have different appellations, and the majority at any rate have two names. The young of Lions, for instance, are called σκύμνοι and λεοντιδεῖς, as Aristophanes of Byzantium testifies; and of Leopards, σκύμνοι and άρκηλοι, although there are those who assert that άρκηλοι are a different kind of leopard. But the young of Jackals are habitually called σκύμνοι only; and the same with Tigers and Ants and Panthers. And it appears that the young of Lynxes are similarly spoken of; at any rate in the Dithyrambs, as they are called, of Lasus we find the young of a lynx spoken of in this way. We hear too of the σκύμνοι and also of the πιθηκιδεῖς of Monkeys, and of the πώλοι of Antelopes, And I should not be surprised if we heard of the πώλοι of Gazelles also says the same Aristophanes.'But the young of Dogs and Wolves would be called σκύλακες, he says. And young wolves are in fact also called λυκιδεῖς, whereas a full-grown wolf of the largest size would be called μονόλυκος. The young of Hares are λαγιδεῖς, but a fully grown Hare poets like to call πτῶκα, the Spartans, ταχίνας. The young of Foxes are called αλωπεκιδεΐς, while their mother is called κερώ and σκαφώρη and σκίνδαφός. Men call the young of Wild Swine μολόβρια, and you may hear Hipponax in some passage speaking of an actual Boar as μολοβρι,της. And there are certain Pigs that are called μονίαι. People habitually call Gazelles ζόρκΐς and πρόκες. And the young of Porcupines and similar creatures are called οβρια; the word is mentioned by Euripides in his Peliades and by Aeschylus in his Agamemnon and his Dictyulci. But the young of Birds and of Snakes and of Crocodiles are called φάκαλοι by some, among whom are the people of Thessaly. And people call little new-hatched birds ορτάλιχοι, and the young of chickens άλεκτοριδεΐ?; and again they speak of χηνιδεΐς and χηναλωπαα,δεΐς and form words like them on the same principle. But Achaeus the tragic poet called the young of the Swallow μόσχος.
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§ 7.48 That memory is an attribute even of animals, and that this is a characteristic acquired without the system and science of mnemonics which certain wonder-workers claim to have invented, the following facts demonstrate. One Androcles by name, who happened to be a slave in the household of a Roman senator, ran away from his master after committing some offence, the nature and extent of which I am unable to state. Well, he arrived in Libya and was for avoiding towns and, as the saying is,'marked their places only by the stars' and went on into the desert. And being parched by the excessive and fiery heat of the sun, he was glad to take refuge and to rest under a caverned rock. This rock, it seems, was the lair of a Lion. Now the Lion returned from hunting, injured from having been pierced with a sharp stake, and when it encountered the young man it looked at him in a gentle manner and began to fawn upon him, extending its paw and imploring him as best it could to have the stake plucked out. Androcles at first shrank back. But when he saw that the beast was in gentle mood, and realised what was the matter with its paw, he extracted what was hurting it and rid the Lion of its pain. The Lion therefore in joy at being healed paid him his fee by treating him as its guest and friend, and shared with him the spoils of its chase. And while the Lion ate its food raw, as is the custom of lions, Androcles used to cook his for himself. And they enjoyed a common table each as was his nature. And this was how Androcles lived for the space of three years. After a time, as his hair grew to an excessive length and he was troubled with a violent itching, he forsook the Lion and trusted himself to fortune. Then as he was wandering about he was caught, questioned as to whom he belonged to, and sent bound to his master in Rome. The master punished his servant for the injury he had done him and he was condemned to be given to the wild beasts to eat. It chanced that the same Libyan lion had also been caught and was let loose in the arena together with the young man destined for death, him who had shared that very Lion's home and dwelling. The man for his part did not know the Lion again, but the animal immediately recognised the man, fawned upon him, and letting its whole body sink down, threw itself at his feet. And at last Androcles recognised his host and throwing his arms round it, greeted it like a comrade returned after absence. But as he was thought to be a magician; a leopard also was let loose upon him. And when it rushed at Androcles the Lion came to the rescue of its former healer and remembering how they used to feed together, tore the leopard to pieces. The spectators, as was natural, were dumbfounded, and the man who was giving the shows summoned Androcles and learnt the whole story. And the report spread through the multitude, and the populace on learning the truth shouted aloud that both man and Lion must be set free. Memory is indeed one of the attributes of animals. And there is a corresponding story to the same effect as the above... in Samos in front of Dionysus of the Open Mouth..., might be thought to know the lair also. For this too he must consult Eratosthenes, Euphorion, and others who narrate it.
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§ 8.1 BOOK VIII Indian histories teach us the following facts also. Huntsmen take thoroughbred bitches which are good at tracking wild animals and are very swift of foot to places infested by these animals; they tie them to trees and then go away, simply, as the saying is, trying a throw of the dice. And if tigers find them when they have caught nothing and are famished, they tear them to pieces. If however they arrive on heat and full-fed they couple with the bitches, for tigers too when gorged turn their thoughts to sexual intercourse. From this union, so it is said, a tiger is born, not a hound. And from this tiger and a bitch again a tiger would be born, although the offspring of this last and of a bitch takes after its dam, and the seed degenerates and a hound is born. Nor will Aristotle contradict this. Now these hounds which can boast a tiger for sire scorn to pursue a stag or to face a boar, but are glad to rush at lions and thereby to give proof of their pedigree. At any rate the Indians gave Alexander the son of Philip a test of the strength of these hounds in the following manner. They let loose a stag, and the Hound stayed quiet; then a boar, and it never moved; after that a bear, but the bear caused it no excitement whatever. But when a lion was let loose, and'when' the Hound'beheld it, then came wrath upon him the fiercer', and as though it had seen its real adversary, it neither hesitated nor remained still but leapt upon the lion and clung to it with a vigorous grip, pressing and throttling it. So then the Indian who was giving the King this exhibition, knowing full well the Hound's power of endurance, ordered the men to cut off its tail. The tail was cut off, but the Hound paid no heed. So the Indian ordered one of its legs to be cut off, and cut off it was. But the Hound clung as fast as ever, and would not let go, as though the leg of some other creature unconnected with it were being cut off. Then another leg was cut off and still the Hound would not relax its bite; then a third, and it continued to cling; and after these the fourth, and still it was capable of biting. And finally they severed the rest of its body from its head. But the Hound's fangs maintained their original grip, while the head hung aloft on the lion, although the biter himself was no more. At this Alexander was grieved and amazed that the Hound in giving proof of its mettle had perished, a fate the reverse of a coward's, and had met its death by reason of its courage. Accordingly the Indian seeing Alexander's grief, presented him with four hounds of the same breed. And he was delighted to receive them and gave the Indian a suitable gift in return. And when the son of Philip received the four he forgot his grief over the first.
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§ 8.2 Every Hound that is good at hunting delights to catch unaided a wild animal and regards the catch as its prize, provided its master consents to this. Otherwise it preserves the animal alive until the huntsman comes up and decides what he wants to do with the capture. But if it comes upon a dead hare or boar it will not touch it, refusing to claim credit for another's labours and declining to appro-priate what does not belong to it. From these facts it appears to have a certain natural love of distinction: it is not meat that it wants; it is victory that it loves. And it is worth hearing how the Hound behaves when it is hunting. It goes ahead of the huntsman, to whom it is attached by a long leash, and controlling its bark, tracks the game by scent. And so long as no game comes its way and it finds nothing, it goes forward rather despondently to judge from its looks; for all that, it goes ahead and leads the huntsman on with the utmost keenness and pertinacity. But if it tracks out some beast and comes upon some scent, then it halts. And the huntsman approaches while the Hound overjoyed at its good luck fawns upon its master, licks his feet, and resumes its original quest, advancing step by step until it comes upon the lair; further it does not go. So then the huntsman understands and with a low call gives the signal to the men with the nets. And they set the nets in a ring. Thereupon the Hound barks. The intention of its baying just then is to provoke the boar to rise in order that he may emerge and as he flees may be caught in the nets. And when the beast is captured, the Hound raises a loud cry of victory, as it were a hymn of praise, and is delighted and leaps about, like soldiers who have overcome their enemies. This is what Hounds do in dealing with boars and stags.
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§ 8.3 It seems that even Dolphins are more scrupulous than men in showing their gratitude and are not controlled by the Persian custom applauded by Xenophon. And what I have to tell is as follows. One Coeranus by name, a native of Paros, when some Dolphins fell into the net and were captured at Byzantium, gave their captors money, as it were a ransom, and set them at liberty; and for this he earned their gratitude. At any rate he was sailing once (so the story goes) in a fifty-oar ship with a crew of Milesians, when the ship capsized in the strait between Naxos and Paros, and though all the rest were drowned, Coeranus was rescued by Dolphins which repaid the good deed that he had first done them by a similar deed. And the headland and caverned rock to which they swam with him on their backs are pointed out, and the spot is called Coeraneus. Later when this same Coeranus died they burnt his body by the sea-shore. Whereupon the Dolphins, observing this from some point, assembled as though they were attending his funeral, and all the while that the pyre was ablaze they remained at hand, as one trusty friend might remain by another. When at length the fire was quenched they swam away. Men however are subservient to the wealthy and the seemingly prosperous while they are alive, but when dead or in misfortune upon them so as to avoid repaying them for past favours.
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§ 8.4 (i). It seems that even Fishes are both tame and tractable, and when summoned can hear and are ready to accept food that is given them, like the sacred eel in the Fountain of Arethusa. And men tell of the moray belonging to Crassus the Roman, which had been adorned with earrings and small necklaces set with jewels, just like some lovely maiden; and when Crassus called it, it would recognise his voice and come swimming up, and whatever he offered it, it would eagerly and promptly take and eat. Now when this fish died Crassus, so I am told, actually mourned for it and buried it. And on one occasion when Domitius said to him'You fool, mourning for a dead moray!' Crassus took him up with these words:'I mourned for a moray, but you never mourned for the three wives you buried.' (ii). I have heard that the Egyptians assert that the sacred Crocodiles are tame, and if their keepers'at any rate touch and handle them they submit and do not object; and they keep their jaws open when the keepers insert their hands and cleanse their teeth and pick out bits of flesh that have got between them. Further, the Egyptians assert that the aforesaid Crocodiles are endowed with prophecy, and adduce the following evidence. Ptolemy (which of the line it was, you must ask them) was calling to the tamest of the Crocodiles, but it paid no attention and would not accept the food he offered. And the priests realised that the Crocodile knew that Ptolemy's end was approaching and consequently declined to take food from him.
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§ 8.5 I have heard that some people practise divination by birds and devote themselves to their study and scrutinise their flight and the quarters of the sky where they appear. And seers like Teiresias, Polydamas, Polyeidus, Theoclymenos and many another are celebrated for their knowledge of this art, while men such as Silanus, Megistias, Euclides and the long tale of their successors were skilled in deciding upon the dispositions of entrails. Again, I have heard people assert that some divine by means of barley-corns, of sieves, and of small cheeses. And I have ascertained that there is a village in Lycia between Myra and Phellus called Sura where there are those who devote themselves to divination by means of fish, and they understand what it purports if the fish come at their call or withdraw, and what it signifies if they pay no attention, and what it portends if they come in numbers. And you shall hear these prophetic utterances of the sages when a fish leaps out of the water or comes floating up from the depths, and when it accepts the food or on the other hand rejects it.
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§ 8.6 It seems that donkeys are easily overcome and seized by wolves, and bees by bee -eaters, cicadas by swallows, and snakes by deer. And the leopard captures most animals, especially the monkey, by its odour.

Via ToposText (topostext.org), a project of the Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation created by Brady Kiesling. Translated by Alwyn Faber Scholfield (1884-1969). Composed ca. 234 CE. Licence: Copyright Harvard University (Greek text CC license). Source.